Development of facial sexual dimorphism in children aged between 12 and 15 years: a three-dimensional longitudinal study
Abstract
Objectives: To evaluate sexual dimorphism of facial form and shape and to describe differences between the average female and male face from 12 to 15 years. Setting and Sample Population: Overall 120 facial scans from healthy Caucasian children (17 boys, 13 girls) were longitudinally evaluated over a 4-year period between the ages of 12 and 15 years.
Materials and Methods: Facial surface scans were obtained using a three-dimensional optical scanner Vectra-3D. Variation in facial shape and form was evaluated using geometric morphometric and statistical methods (DCA, PCA and permutation test).
Average faces were superimposed, and the changes were evaluated using colour-coded maps. Results: There were no significant sex differences (p > 0.05) in shape in any age category and no differences in form in the 12- and 13-year-olds, as the female faces were within the area of male variability.
From the age of 14, a slight separation occurred, which was statistically confirmed. The differences were mainly associated with size.
Generally boys had more prominent eyebrow ridges, more deeply set eyes, a flatter cheek area, and a more prominent nose and chin area. Conclusion: The development of facial sexual dimorphism during pubertal growth is connected with ontogenetic allometry.