Abstract
The horn/buffalo flies (Haematobia irritans and H. exigua) are small (3-5 mm long) dark grey biting muscid flies. These cosmopolitan hematophagous ectoparasites are closely associated with livestock (cattle and buffalo) and occasionally horses grazing in open pastures and rangeland, in smaller numbers occur also on drylot or indoor animals.
Flies spend most of their life on the host and tend to congregate on the back, shoulders, or underbelly. As for most ectoparasites, the damage they inflict can be considered either direct, that caused by their blood-feeding activity, or, in some regions, indirect, as important vectors of livestock pathogens.
Persistent blood-feeding of both adult fly sexes irritates livestock and can cause significant production losses. Horn flies are mechanical vectors (e.g., bacteria causing bovine mastitis) and intermediate hosts of nematodes (Stephanofilaria and Parabronema).
The effective horn fly populations' reduction is challenging due to several factors related mostly to the biological features of these insects and includes mainly insecticides, trapping, and grazing management; however, insecticide resistance is a problem among these biting flies in several parts of their geographic range. Conditions that fast drying of manure, along with activities of dung beetles also can provide some natural control.